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Self-Determination in Arab Society
Introduction
Since world war two, much of the developing world has been in transition. One such idea that saw a re-birth was that of self-determination-- be it on the national level ?or on the personal level. Self-determination on a national level means the
independence of a country; on a personal level, it is the determination of one? own fate. This can be seen in various ways with our five women characters, Maha, Um Saad, Nadia, Yusra and Suad.
In the forward of Daughters of Abraham, Karen Armstrong notes that Islam is "adamantly opposed to the subjection of one human being by another," "insist that men and women were created by God? image" and "both sexes have equal rights and responsibilities before God." Strong and resourceful women have played a key role in history and yet Islam has pushed women into an inferior and marginal position, excluding them from full participation in the social, cultural and religious life of the community. Even though figures such as the prophet Muhammad had a positive view of women, relied on them, and treated them as valued equals, some of the most respected sages and theologians have preached outright misogyny.
In Rethinking Women and Islam, Amira Sonbol remarks that while the "vision of equality has been one of the mainsprings and central teachings of Islam," it is not extended to women. Rather the numerous Quranic references to equality between man and woman are commonly disregarded, "as the man is given superior moral and physical role as guardian over his wife." It is this type of understanding that is rooted into Arab culture whether or not Arab women have experienced great changes in modernization and industrialization. Therefore, it is imperative that women stand up for themselves and have a sense of self-determination.
Self Determination
Women were among the first converts to Islam, and the Koran gave women rights of inheritance and divorce that Western women did not receive until the nineteenth century. The Koran does not describe the wearing of the veil of all women as well as seclusion. However, Karen Armstrong notes that three of four generations after the prophet? death, Muslims imitated the customs of the Greeks and the Persians in their empire who had long treated their women in this way. Moreover, in her view, Muslims also picked up some of the Christian misogyny and pre-modern legal codes like the Shariah "reduced women to the rank of second-class citizens even though the ideal of the equality of all believers was crucial to the Quran? message."
As seen in our stories, she also pointed out that "the improved status of women is one of the most significant developments of the twentieth century. It has irrevocably changed the social, domestic, intellectual, and economic life of society." However, it seems to me that people who should be in the forefront of this process of liberation have often tried to put women back in their old marginal place. In modern culture, the conservatives have responded by over-stressing traditional restrictions. Moreover, when fundamentalists fear the destruction of faith by the hands of seculars and liberals, the bodies of women become the focus.
For Arab women novelists such as Fadia Faqir and Leila Al-Atrash tackle the issue of self-determination with regard to women, which is reflected in Pillars of Salt and a Woman of Five Seasons. In Pillars of Salt the audience is introduced to Maha and Um Saad who are both put into the Fuhais Mental Institution in Jordan and share a room as well as their lives. Although Maha is from a small village in the Jordan valley and Um Saad is from the city of Amman, they share the same determination to survive a male-dominated society. In Maha? case that mainly stems from her brother: physical and emotional abuse, inheritance she is forced to give up, an arranged second marriage as well as other issues.
There seems no doubt that in a limited way, self-determination for women stem from the fact that there is a double standard in Arab society. Women are told to be submissive and virginal while men are in the forefront and allowed to be promiscuous. How can a woman grow intellectually if she is obliged to be in a state of submission? Issues such as inheritance, women? education and polygamy are addressed in the Quran are sensitive to women needs but interpretation throughout years have used these sources to subjugate women.
In this case, Maha? desire to have her share of land and power over her own life. Thus, an example of this is her bother wanting to take the land and when he forces marriage upon her. In Um Saad? situation, it was a sexual control in which the husband insists on a second wife, which flaunts his control through embarrassment and other means. In terms of Maha, she is not independent before or after marriage. She is not allowed to go out and meet her future husband, Harb alone at night. She will not only gain a bad reputation, but there is a possibility of death. This can be seen when she questions about possible negative affects in meeting him,"
Regarding Nadia, it was the desire to be respected as a person and break away from her husband? shadow.
An example of this is when she goes into real estate and opens up a business with another woman.
In Yusra situation, she takes control of her life. While realizing the dangers involved, she believed in the basic of self-determination, that being survival. However, her mom has a more traditional view towards that. She believes that life is determined by fate and chance and she talks about the need to go on living with her life. In the case of Suad, it is her desire to marry freely and live her life according to her standards. For example, she moves from Jordan to Beirut to be with her husband who fights for the Palestinian cause although her father does not approve.
Maha feels compelled to take her mother? advice against her own gut feelings and regrets it when she commented that it was her mother? fault for her attitudes. This lack of self-determination or control of her own life did not go away once she was married. In essence, she was not fully independent. This can be seen, for example, when her father makes it clear to her that if her husband does not come back soon, she must move back home. When she learns that her husband dies, she decides to leave her mother-in law? house for her father?. Furthermore, during the early part of her marriage, Maha decides to visit her father but her mother in law does not think it is a good idea for a young bride to do because people might say that she cannot stay put in her husband? house. Therefore, she says, "If Harb was there he would have let me go."
UM SAAD, on the other hand, is under the control of her father and then his control transfers over to her husband. Um Saad is not allowed to make any choices for herself. The inequality between men and women may have roots in the Koran. Because the first child of Adam and Eve was a girl, she was buried alive and thus the blood feud between men and women had begun. She is not allowed to do anything without the permission of her father and if she disobeys, he beats her up. She wishes she could be invisible, slip into another identity, and "depart this body" . Not only was she a woman, but she was an immigrant? daughter and people thought of her as an outcast with no past.
In the case of NADIA, we see her independence growing as the novel progresses. She speaks her mind in the first chapter, "Im sorry, I just don? feel like going" when her husband insists she look good for him at a social event. Although she has this growing sense of independence, she is torn between being a traditional Muslim wife, who is only there to serve and please her husband and a modern woman who fulfills her own needs. When her husband fails to give Nadia both land and gold she gives him an ultimatum, "until you?e done it for me, we sleep in separate bedrooms." She puts forth her own conditions in a society where women do not have a say her husband? world
Contrasting this is Yusra. When Yusra? husband dies, she becomes a strong-willed person because she is carrying his unborn child who will carry on his legacy. She knows it will be hard to "fight against the sadness weighing on [her] soul?ll try but it? not easy at all." At the same time she is determined not to forget her husband and the happiness he had brought into her life as well as the circumstances that lead to his tragic ending. Yusra proclaims twice, "Don? talk to me about forgetting!" as a way to validate her own feelings.
She is a very outspoken woman who won? take no for an answer. For example, Yusra was willing to stay out until five in the morning to fill the jerry cans because there was not a drop of water at home. This shows her responsibility to her family as well as the determination to get what she set out for in her lifetime.
Thus, we can see different approaches to the need for self-determination. As we can, it is not that easy: there are many variables to consider, one of which is that of ?ultural factors".
Cultural Issues
As a general rule, a patriarchal society tends to influences such things as laws on succession as well as indirectly on the role of women, specifically, their sexuality. Women? sexuality is often seen as the property of men: initially by the father; then via her husband. In fact, her "virginity became economically valuable property". In fact, Ahmed notes that this may have led to the "rigid demarcation between ?espectable?women (wives) who sexuality and reproductive capabilities belonged to one man, and women who were sexually available to any man." Clearly, this also includes the male right to control women. "This allows for female exclusion from social activities in which they might have contact with men that are not their husbands, their physical seclusion and instilling the notion of the subordinate woman."
For Maha, the issue of virginity plays a big role in Muslim society. If she loses it before marriage she is seen as a piece of meat whose been tainted. For example, Nasra is raped and is not longer respected in the community. She is ostracized and no longer is marriage material. There is also a double standard when it comes to the sexes. For instance Maha? father puts the responsibility on Nasra, "you should not have tempted him ". Men and women are not treated equal, case in point when Maha? mother comments, "What do you expect? He is a boy. Allah placed him a step higher. We must accept Allah? verdict."
Fertility falls under the responsibility of a woman. It is a woman? problem if she is barren and not the case of male being impotent. Maha? mother in law worries why she is not pregnant after six months of marriage, as well as the rest of the community. Being unable to produce a child reflects back on the woman. Even more so, the pressure to produce a son is even higher. Maha notes that women are talking about her barrenness and worries what people are thinking as well as any rumors that must have spread. Because Maha seems to be unable to conceive she visits Hajjeh Hulala and places a hot sachet inside her. At a later time, Maha is cauterized in which her stomach is burned and her insides are washed with hot water. Maha sees the "painted women" as lowering themselves for the men when they wear make up and tight clothes.
In terms of Um Saad, while education was prevalent in Jordan, it was not mandatory as we witnessed when Um Saad is pulled out of school. This reinforces the notion that a woman? place is in the home. Furthermore, it is when she learned to write her name that it becomes a problem. Illiteracy kept women from expressing themselves and finding their own identity and limited their knowledge. As the bible suggests, being a female brings trouble into this world. She must be tamed and kept under strict control as her father and her husband clearly demonstrates. Women are also personified as being a piece of meat and not a human being. Marriage is not shared between two loving people as in this case since Um Saad has no idea that she will be attending her own wedding. She is given to Abu Saad as though she is chattel, without her own will.
Moreover, we learn that as a generalization, it seems that many believe that Arab women have no rights even once they are married. For example, she must not leave the house without permission at any time. Um Saad cannot stay in her house anymore and runs out to a mosque in middle of the night where she finally has a peaceful nights sleep. She is put in a straightjacket and sent to a mental institution for running away in which she is deemed mad? Bringing another wife is permissible under the Koran, but it is not really respected especially when the husband cannot treat his wives with equal share. In this case, he makes Um Saad do the chores and pays little attention to her
This same concern of control and culture applies to Nadia. We see with her that women are seen as a man? possession even though life seems to be more liberating in Barqais. For instance, Ihsan uses his wife as a means to fame and fortune since he cannot get it on his own, "Nadia, I want all the women in Barqais to be talking about you." This reiterates the notion that a woman? place is still behind a man. Nadia was hurt by the fact that he could never see her as anything but his woman. Ihsan is not so keen about women working in a profession. For example, his wife decided to open up her own business. He believes that if a woman runs her own place, it is bound for disaster because women don? know the first thing about running a business. He may be afraid that if a woman gets too powerful then she ultimately destroys everything around her. Therefore, a woman? place is behind a man, which will keep her subordinate.
The King we find talks about the issue of women? rights in the parliament. They agree they women want a materialistic lifestyle to keep them happy and secure. This reinforces the notion of men? thinking in the country of Barqais. Women and education do not go hand in hand because that would be selfish on her part. She has to provide first for her husband and his wants and needs. Marriage is not between two people that are in love. Ihsan wanted Nadia because his older brother had feelings for her. It was all a game to Ihsan and he wanted to be the better brother in any way possible. According to Muslim tradition, the older brother is supposed to make sacrifices for his younger siblings as well as being unselfish.
Yusra? life in Lebanon seems to be more liberated than some of the other Muslim countries. Her girl friend is a volunteer nurse for instance. She lived opposite the Red Crescent clinic in al-Zaatar. There also seems to be a more balanced marriage between the two of them. The pronoun we?is prevalent on page 22 and 23 in which she mentions, "Wed planned to marry" and "we drew up the marriage contract" which seem to be modern views. Also she admits that being a new bride in her parent? home is "an embarrassing situation to say the least" which implies the notion that she wanted her own place for the two of them.
Suad and her husband have a somewhat equal relationship when it comes to taking care of the kids and interacting with one another. The underlying factor for this is the fact that they were educated young adults. Her husband was a student at the Sorbonne and studied Political Science. He also goes over some rules of French grammar with the children, which illustrate the need to educate his children. In the final analysis, it seems that women who become politically involved can choose whom they marry, a situation often seen in Beirut, which had a history of more western liberalism.
Western Influence
Sherif Abdel Azim notes that Arab society can deviate if they are influenced by the Western culture and way of life. A typical "modern" woman's top priority in life is to enhance her physical beauty. Therefore, she is often obsessed with her body's shape, size, and weight. She tends to care more about her body than her mind and intellect. Her ability to charm people is more valued in the society than her educational achievements, and intellectual pursuits. " One is not expected to find a copy of the Quran in her purse since it is full of cosmetics that accompany her wherever she goes. Her spirituality has no room in a society preoccupied with her attractiveness. Therefore, she would spend her life striving more to realize her femininity than to fulfill her humanity."
Daffash looks at his own people as being ?ackwards? As a result, he tries anything he can to identify himself as close with the English i.e. making friends with the British. In contrast, with Um Saad, we are told that in the ?ity, women wear make up in order to make themselves more attractive toward their husbands. They seem to want to emulate the British women by "waxing our legs, cutting our hair, lines our eyes? For Nadia, the situation is a bit different. She is sick of the materialistic lifestyle the western world brings with its lavish parties and pricey vacations. However, under the influence of Jessica Raban, a French office manager, she opened up a real estate business together. As a result, she has been greatly influenced by western society? notion of women in the work force.
In the case of Yusra, her husband treats her with great respect and as an equal. He engages her in intellectual conversations concerning the resistance movement and his schooling. She wore a white dress on her wedding day, while for Suad, education is a major western influence. For instance, Umar teaches his children French grammar and studied at the Sorbonne. Suad is involved with the Women? Union and reads many books. Men and women of the resistance movement interact with one another and gender does not become an issue.
The Red Cross is prevalent in Beirut and Yusra describes how her mother tried to take her brother to get treatment after he was wounded but is not able to get help. There is mention of the Red Crescent clinic, which had been turned into a hospital. Her husband who is part of the Palestinian resistant movement has written a phrase in English from War and Peace by Tolstoy in which he reads it to Yusra. It says, "the factor establishing an army? morale is hard to quantify scientifically because it isn? related wither to the numbers of soldiers or to any other obvious cause." Living in Beirut, which is highly liberated, she takes an interest in her husband? quest for Palestinian independence. I do not think she is preoccupied with any western influence, but just the struggle to survive.
The concept of self-determination, as we have seen, is varied, and cultural factors can influence the outcome. Of course, the out-come will differ depending on the road a person takes. For example, she can decide to improve her education, become a businessperson, or raise a family!
Education
In terms of Maha, we see how Sheikh Nimer taught his daughter how to shoot with an English rifle since they use to go hunting together. He remarked, "The daughter of the tiger of the desert must be a tigress." Her mother taught her how to weave and she learned how to cure the sick orange groves in her father? field by using a specialized serum.
But yet, with Um Saad, She went to religious school but her education was limited. She was forced to stop going to school after a year because she was learning ?oo much?such as writing her name in Arabic. Education is seen not only as a learning experience but an escape from the sheltered home and the patriarchal world where women could become knowledgeable and independent. In Um Saad? case, school was an escape from her controlling father.
Contrasting that are Nadia and Yusra. In terms of the former, we see an intellectual and cultured woman. She takes pleasure in reading and loves to learn. She had been given a formal education, but never finished it because her husband insisted that she become pregnant. Later on, she goes back to college in order to get a degree in business administration. In terms of Yusra, it seems like Yusra has some sort of education because she is married to a man who went to college for five years and has a degree in Radiology. He is also a resistance fighter for the Palestinian cause so they may have had the same political outlook. She had not found anything of interest in his diary except for an expression written in English, which came from Tolstoy? War and Peace.
Then of course, there is Suad. She is an intellectual woman who takes part in the Palestinian resistance movement in Jordan. She also reads books such as "the novel by Naguib Mahfouz which [she] borrowed from the school library." She also studied with her friend Latifa which implies the fact that she was educated.
Suad is her own woman because she takes part in the Resistance movement among other women and men who also fight for the cause. Suad goes out of her way and involves herself among people. She would constantly visit her friend, study together, and help with errands. She is a woman of action. Her fianc? asked her to move to Beirut with him and she packed her bags. She left with her mother? consent, but her father did not approve of her fianc? because he was part of the resistance. She is also very opinionated on various subjects. Her vast knowledge gives her the opportunity to speak her mind. For example, Umar and Suad conversed about "the kinds of food eaten in our two countries, and then to the state of affairs in his country."
Another option for self-determination is that of livelihood and the choice of having one? own career.
Livelihood
For Maha, we see weaving as a manifestation of her desire for independence. Maha? refuses to dye the wool even though her mother in law tells her to. This represents her refusal to give in and be a follower. While Maha lives at home, she takes care of her father? farm by milking the cows and taking care of the trees and plants. She continues to do the same work during her marriage. Maha uproots the weeds from the small piece of land behind the house in order to clear the land and plant some henna, radishes and orange trees. She would also carry the water jar on her head and walk to the ?ong Well? When she returns to her father, she continues to work the farm and revive the dying plants and trees that her brother Daffash has neglected.
The situation is a bit different with Um Saad. On the first Monday of each month, she would have to clean the house from top to bottom and cook because her mom had guests over. Once she was married, she could care of her husband? need such as cooking and cleaning him up after work. He was a butcher so she would do a lot of scrubbing and cleaning in order to get rid of the smell. She hated this because it reminded her of death and sewage.
For Nadia, she opens up her own real estate business by putting her own house on the block. She is also a savvy business because she saved 3 million pounds in shares of stock. This shows the fact that she acted on her own initiative and not with the help of her husband.
Then of course, there is our Yusra, who fetches water in the refugee camp for the 11 members in her family. She also runs errands such as getting "a tin of milk for [her] baby brother" in midst of the Lebanese Civil War. She would wait in 8-10 hour intervals and this is only when they are not being shelled, at which time the water is cut off.
We see things a bit differently with Suad. She did voluntary work training people in first aid but she needs to find a paying job that will support both of them because her husband? stipend is only enough to pay for the rent. At the same time, she does the usual chores such as cleaning and dusting but this is of less importance to the situation that is going around her. She also helped her friend organize discussions or parties by the Women? Union. This demonstrates not only her involvement in women? issues but women? solidarity in general.
Family Issues
Another area where self-determination comes into play is that of family issues and child bearing.
Since becoming a woman, Maha? father did not want her to work the fields because he thought it was exhausting, shameful and felt a woman? place was in a "well closed room." However, he did not want her to stop working because she was the only one who took care of the groves. Her father despises Daffash because he always wanted a good son that was capable of "digging his hands into the soil and transforming that piece of land into a green orchard and not a womanizer and a city-worshipper. Therefore, Maha? son Mubarek inherits her father? farm. Daffash physically abuses Maha when he does not get his way. When his sister does not bring him his sandals, he slaps her.
Maha goes after Daffash with a rifle and intends to kill him when she finds out her brother rapes her friend, Nasra and the wife of Salih. He is a womanizer and has no shame. Daffash is annoyed that Maha has returned home after the death of Harb. It is only after she gives birth to her son that he proclaims, "you may stay in my house." After the death of her father, Daffash wants to keep the farm for himself by forcing Maha to stamp a piece of paper giving him the rights to own it. He also gave his word to Sheikh Talib that Maha would marry him.
For Um Saad, the issue of marriage causes many problems. Muhammad, who is Circassian, is not allowed to marry Um Saad because her father does not permit it. Maybe a Circassian was a lower class or not a Muslim. Her father beats her up after he finds out that she spent time with Muhammad in his store because it is a crime of honor when two people are not married. The family? name becomes tarnished and may lose respect. As her neighbors say, "Girls are a worry until you are in the grave."
Um Saad and her husband never communicated with each other. They just ?oexisted? She kept her mouth shut and she got use to the lack of conversation. Her husband considers her to be inferior to him as he says, " What happened to your brain, woman?" His wife is not an equal partner in this relationship. They each have their separate roles to play. He gave her orders and she would listen. Um Saad feels cheated and neglected because her husband takes a younger bride to be his second wife and lives in the same house. She is utterly humiliated when he beats her because he has no respect for her old age.
Nadia does not like the fact that her husband keeps pushing her to go to socialite gatherings because it is only about an image and not substance. She is a woman of many facets and doesn? want to feel like she is put on display for other women to gawk at. He wants to show her off in order to gain fame and status. All her husband sees is money and materialistic things in life, but Nadia thinks there is more to that. Wealth does not bring person happiness and she despises the fact that he buys her things in order to silence her.
Ihsan does not think education comes from books. Life is educating in itself and nothing can replace it. He mocks Nadia because she reads a lot of intellectual books that have relevance to the society of the times. Nadia found out that Ihsan had an affair while he was away on business and this affair had been used as blackmail against her husband. She took the initiative by paying that person for his silence and in turn saved her own dignity as well as the respect for her children. She did NOT do this for the sake of Ihsan. She is her own person who takes responsibility for herself. While he experienced his downfall, "the decision, he knew, was hers alone now." Nadia takes control of the situation and keeps her family together even in the time of crisis.
Jalal, Ihsan? brother always had a liking for Nadia and one night he tries to kiss her while he is drunk. She slaps him and tells him to leave. Nadia? expectation of Jalal had been shattered. She no longer thought of him as a man who respected her for being a person of unique character and intellect. Rather, he saw her as a woman and a sexual creature whose desire he had to arouse at any given point in time. This is also a turning point for Nadia as she exclaims, "I haven? met Jalal since that day, since I took possession of myself."
Fascist insurgents shoot Yusra? brother in the head because he admitted that he was a Palestinian. Neither she nor her family may stop and mourn him for they will be immediately shot. Yusra is separated from her mother and siblings and finds her grandmother. There aren? any noticeable problems in Yusra? marriage. At one point he tried to conceal the fact that some of this months salary was missing. However, he felt compelled to tell her the truth in which he paid the difference. This shows the trust he has for his wife and his best friend.
With Suad, we see a different concern. Suad finds a white hair on her baby? head. The white on the baby signifies the fact that life goes by very quickly because of all the pain and suffering that exists in Lebanon. Suad and her friend try desperately to search for her husband after the Israeli air raids. Eventually, he is found dead. Violence and the loss of family are important issues that are dealt with in the story.
Naturally, during the process of deciding what to accomplish, we must face the reality of inner and societal conflicts e.g., being pulled emotionally from different directions. This is not an easy situation for our characters.
Conflicts
Maha does not want to re-marry although her brother gives Sheikh Talib his blessings. Maha flees with her baby to the mountains and hides for a few days in order to get away from the situation. Daffash fight over the piece of land that his father had given to Maha. Maha despises the fact that Daffash is friends with the British who in turn murdered her husband. At Samir Pasha? house, she remarks, "you killed Harb" and storms off. This embarrasses Daffash.
For Um Saad, the situation is a bit different. Um Saad does not want her husband sleeping, let alone bringing in another woman as his wife. She is horrified when she sees for herself and becomes an insomniac, as she must sleep next to her sons. She cannot seek help. The only place she can identify with is her house, especially her bedroom and that is taken away from her when he takes a second wife.
In terms of Nadia, not only does she disagree about many things with her husband, she has mixed feelings within herself. She wants to express her feelings and thoughts to Ihsan because there is no way he could understand her if she keeps her feelings inside. However, she wants to be the loving wife who pleases her husband and obeys him. She wrestles with herself, but she knows the truth. She knows who she is as a person but it takes the season of spring for her inner self to burst out.
Now, things are a bit more complicated for Yusra, considering that she is living in middle of a major Lebanese civil war between the Christian and Muslims. She also has to endure the Israeli air raids that strike southern Lebanon. Her only obstacle is trying to survive death. Death was common everywhere, even to those who would never deserve it. For example, a sniper killed Yusra? girl friend, a volunteer nurse.
The situation for Suad is somewhat similar. Living in the midst of constant civil war in Lebanon and Israeli invasion, Suad remembers Black September in Amman.
Conclusion
Regarding inheritance, the Quran states:
"From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large --a determinate share" (Quran 4:7).
The division of inheritance is also detailed in Quran 4:11,12,176. The general rule is that the female share is half the male's share.
With regard to polygamy:
"If you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, marry women of your choice, two or three or four; but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly with them, then only one" (Quran 4:3).
The Quran limits the maximum number of wives to four under the strict condition of treating the wives equally and justly.
The Koran seems to tell women their role in society, their place at home, and their sexual behavior. The questions arise: how does that conflict with self determination, control and power? While the Koran is sensitive toward women? needs, interpretations throughout many generations have used the text to marginalize women by preaching that women are second-class with respect to man in the "natural order." However there are exceptions that show flexibility in the case of Yusra and Suad. In those cases we find more support from their family thereby making self-determination an easier process. Thus we can see there are no absolutes for some, self determination seems to be easier while for others it has many obstacles. The question we must answer in the future is what steps can be taken to ensure that the process of self determination on a personal level will not be manipulated by those with a different agenda.
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