Western Atlantic

Bluefin Tuna

(Thunnus thynnus)

(copyright Monterey Bay Aquarium)

 

 

 

the issue and the problem

 

 

 

Introduction

 

 

The purpose of this page is to provide general information concerning

the over-fishing of Western Atlantic Bluefin Tuna, using the New

England area of the United States of America as a case study. The

I=PAT formula (Impacts = {Population}{Affluence or Economics}

{Technology or Science}) is applied throughout.

 

Format: The page is broken into five main sections: the issue and the

problem, why conservation is important, why over-fishing occurs,

the public response to over-fishing and solutions. Each main section

has several subsections. Readers are encouraged to read in main

sections in order for clarity.

 

disclaimer: This page is intended to be a broad overview of the issue.

Interested parties are encouraged to use the sources in the bibliography

for more precise information. Any factual inaccuracies are strictly my

own, me being Livka Farrell. I may be reached with questions or comments

by email: lyfarrel@mtholyoke.edu

 

 

 

The Problem

 

 

- Each year, over-fishing causes untold damage to the fish, the industry

and the economy.

- Western Atlantic Bluefin Tuna are on the road to extinction: the

population off the eastern seaboard has declined more than 90%

since 1970. This is from an estimated quarter million to 22,00 fish.

http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html

- Over-fishing costs New England more than $350 million annually

and more than fourteen thousand jobs." (Safina, 1997: 43)

- Effects on the international economy are also severe, but much

harder to calculate.

 

 

 

 

why conservation is important:

 

 

The Value of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna

 

- A quote from Carl Safina's A Song for the Blue Ocean

expresses a mindset which is useful when beginning to consider

the issues surrounding Atlantic Bluefin Tuna:

 

"That morning I saw something. Not new - after

years of fishing, it was certainly not the first tuna

I had seen - but I saw something differently. I

saw this fish not as an opponent at the end of a

line, not as potential money at the fish house,

not as a prop against which my "sport" was

framed, not as the prospective evening meal, but

as a wild animal, perfect master of its element."

(Safina, 1997: 8)

 

 

 

beauty:

 

"Its lacquered back [is] deep blue, its flanks edged

with a lighter, luminous electric blue that bordered

a burnished bronze, finally grading to the metallic

silver-gray of its belly." (Safina, 1997: 114-15)

 

-see pictures.

-see more pictures.

 

 

physical abilities:

 

- Tuna have been described as one of the largest, fastest

and most wide-ranging animals on Earth. "They can reach

lengths of more than ten feet, weights of more than

one thousand two hundred pounds, and have a natural life

span of up to forty years." http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html

- Tuna are among the fastest fish on earth. The word tuna is

actually a Greek verb, meaning "to rush." Bluefin can accelerate to

speeds of up to 35 mph, when chasing prey or being hunted

themselves. http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html As Safina

comments: "Close your eyes. Think fish. Do you envision half a

ton of laminated muscle rocking through the sea as fast as you

drive your automobile? These giant tuna strain the concept of

fish." (Safina, 1997: 17)

 

- In addition to speed, tuna are impressive travelers. For example,

"a tagged northern Bluefin" has traveled" 7,770 miles across the

Atlantic Ocean in 119 days - an average distance of 65 km per day."

http://encarta.msn.com/index/concise/0vol09/010d0000.asp

They make epic seasonal migrations for spawning purposes.

Western Atlantic Bluefin have only one spawning ground, located
in the Gulf of Mexico. Before and after spawning, Bluefin inhabit

the waters adjacent to New England and Maritime Canada in order

to feed. The rich Grand Banks in this area attracts them.

 

physical adaptations:

 

 

- Atlantic Bluefin Tuna possess four amazing adaptations:

aerodynamic design, counter-current exchange, electrical and

solar navigation devices.

- A current news item: "engineers from MIT are now designing

underwater vehicles based on the shape and propulsion of tuna, as

a way to achieve previously undreamed of efficiency." (Safina,

1997: 28)

- "Bluefins maintain body temperature of 24 to 36 degrees C,

although they inhabit waters ranging as low as 6 degrees C."

(Cort and Liorzou, 1991, quoted in http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html)

This is possible because they have counter-current exchange, made

possible by retes. Retes are defined by Webster's as a design in

which networks of blood vessels are located next to each other to

conserve and recycle body heat. This enormously sucessful

adaptation is shared by humans, but not by most other fish.

- The tuna uses the sun as a compass, and is capable of generating

magnetic fields which allow it to navigate via the Earth's magnetic

fields. http://www.hp.com/abouthp/features/bluefin/taxonomy.html

 

 

 

location on the trophic pyramid:

 

 

- Its physical abilities and adaptations make the Atlantic Bluefin

Tuna an essential component to the marine ecosystem.

- They are apex predators, at the fourth trophic level.

-Tuna are analagous to the "great cats of the African Savannas."

http://www.wwf.org/

 

Atlantic Bluefin Tuna as food:

 

- In another direction, people greatly enjoy eating Atlantic Bluefin

Tuna. Its "succulent red meat is a highly prized delicacy in...[the]

most exclusive sushi restaurants." (Safina, 1997: 111)

-If you are interested in sushi, consider visiting Taipei & Tokyo in

Northampton, MA or to see a menu, click here.

 

 

 

 

The Value Of Fishermen

 

 

 

the fishing lifestyle:

 

 

- "Fishermen are the last hunter-gatherers in modern culture."

(Safina, 1997: 16) Thus, fishing is a way of life in addition to being

an occupation.

- Fishing has the potential to foster a love of and respect for the

great outdoors and wildlife, which is beneficial for the individual.

This comes from the joy found in professions involving

the great outdoors and wildlife. As one fisherman described his

early experiences: "for a fifteen-year-old kid [an opportunity to go

tuna fishing] is like "Wow! They pay me for this? I loved it."

(Safina, 1997: 81-82)

- A similar opinion:

"If you talk to enough fishermen, you many sense how much we

really love the bluefin and how much they mean to us. I think

it's the way the Indians felt about the buffalo." (Safina, 1997: 14)

-If this attitude can be shared with the larger world, it may

improve our general respect for marine life and all life on Earth.

 

 

The Value of Jobs:

 

 

- I regret that I was unable to find statistics, but there are hundreds

of thousands of women and men dependent (at least in part) on

the Atlantic Bluefin Tuna industry worldwide. (Some of these

individuals are especially dependent on the industry because

their skills are not easily transferable to other jobs.)

- Hundreds of thousands of people, and a segment of the

economy, is dependent on them in turn.

- The number of jobs surrounding the Atlantic Bluefin Tuna

industry is huge.

- A limited list includes: the fishermen, the folks who make

boats, gear and technological equipment, the folks who make

and fly spotter planes, the folks who jet tuna around the world,

the folks who own canneries and their staff, the folks who own

distributing companies and their staff, advertisers, and the

owners and staff of sushi restaurants.

 

 

 

 

 

why overfishing occurs:

 

A Mini-History Of Tuna Harvesting:

(A or Economics I=PAT)

 

 

 

- Humans and tuna share a long history: "archeological evidence

confirms that this species has been harvested by Western cultures

for 2,500 years." http://www.outdoor.se/sportfishnews/articles/bluefin/index.htm

- In this country, John Cabot described the teeming fishing grounds

of the Grand Banks the year 1500 "as so swarming with fish [that

they] could be taken not only with a net, but in baskets let down

with a stone." (Safina, 1997: 45)

- The first reference to commercial fishing in the U.S. is from the

1940s, but the fishing was on a very small scale.

- The nature of the harvesting has changed drastically in the past

thirty years:

"Prior to the 1960s, fishing for north Atlantic bluefin tuna was

limited to subsistence fishing, sport tournaments, and small-

scale commercial ventures. During the 1960s, fishing efforts

intensified as international markets developed for canned

and fresh bluefin. By the late 1970s and early 1980s...

harpooners and longliners sought giant bluefin for export

to Japan." http://www.cnie.org/nle/mar-5.html

 

- As one of Safina's informants notes, "since around 1975, the bluefin

fishery has evolved into a cash producing fishery, an important part of a

person's annual earnings." (Safina, 1997: 70)

-Currently, tuna are a "gold mine," the world's most expensive marine

fish.

- There are two connected reasons why.

- The first concerns the change in tuna fishing methods and equipment.

- Historically, tuna were either caught by harpooning (just what is

sounds like) or angling. These methods involve an individual pitting

her strengh against one tuna. Because such fishing is more physically

difficult it generally has a lower yield. Learn more about angling

 

-When harpooning and/or angling is practiced today, spotter planes are

often used. Fishermen hire the planes to locate large schools,

significantly increasing catches.

- At present, tuna are often caught by purse seine, but primarily by

longline. These methods allow fishermen to catch many fish with

relatively little effort. Because such fishing employs greater technology,

a much higher fish mortality rate results. Learn more about purse seining

and longlining.

- The other major reason why tuna harvesting has become more

commercial is economic. See the following section.

 

 

Economics And Japanese Food Culture

(A or Economics in I=PAT)

 

 

note: this page focuses Japan's contributions to overfishing of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna,

as it is the largest importer. Many other consumers are negatively affecting Atlantic

Bluefin Tuna at present, as well.

 

- Japan is a rich nation and

- a cornerstone of the Japanese diet is seafood.

- Historically, the Japanese have used Pacific Bluefin Tuna and many

other fish found in the Pacific.

- Increased demand for, and the subsequent over-fishing of, many

Pacific fish, including Pacific Bluefin Tuna, has created the same

stresses in these fisheries as in Atlantic Bluefin Tuna.

- The Japanese have increasingly imported fish to meet demand. See

Japanese Fishery Imports By Selected Species, April, 1998 .

- This is a costly proposition. Check out http://www.sea-world.com

for current prices. (You will have to search the site for Japan and

market price and tuna. Sorry for the inconvenience.)

- Atlantic Bluefin Tuna is especially costly. According to its quality,

it may be considered a delicacy.

- Fishers can expect to be paid fifty dollars a pound for providing this

luxury. This translates into huge profits for the fishermen and even

greater profits for the middlemen.

- An example:

"[In] Tokyo wholesalers auction fish to retailers. One bluefin

recently sold for $83,500, nearly $117 per pound. The 715

pound giant was to be reduced to 2,400 servings of sushi

which...would be served to elite business and government

officials for $75 per serving, bringing in, altogether,

$180,000. One fish. (Safina, 1997: 14)

 

Selected Population Issues

(Population in I=PAT)

 

 

- As the world population grows, the number of Japanese (and other)

consumers of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna is increasing dramatically.

- The lucrative nature of this industry has brought about two

population issues.

- The lure of "easy" money has raised the number of fishermen

(from an ever increasing U.S. population) who go after tuna. Both the

number of part time fishermen (who hunt tuna to augment their income)

and the number full time fishermen has increased.

- As with other fisheries, the children of tuna fishermen may

understandably expect to move into the industry as adults.

(Orbach, Hunters, Seamen, Entrepreneurs) This trend may become

more pronounced as the U.S. population grows.

 

 

Tuna Behavior

(T or Science in I=PAT)

 

basic premise:

 

-This project rests on a simple biological premise.

-The number of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna capable of breeding is

proportional to the number of offspring produced.

- Thus, the fewer living adults there are the fewer offspring there will be.

- However, as this project has and will show in the next two sections,

this fact has gotten lost in other (primarily economic) concerns.

 

argument that there is not enough information on population for

effective management:

 

- Until now, this project has basically treated the Atlantic Bluefin Tuna

population as one. For management purposes the Atlantic Bluefin

population is divided into western and eastern halves, however.

 

"Western and eastern Atlantic management areas are divided by the 45

degree longitude extending from the tip of Greenland due south between

South America and Africa."

- The eastern area has only been managed under high quotas since 1995.

see 1999 Catch Quotas.

- Scientists state that there is not enough information, especially on

"mixing" between these groups, to manage Atlantic Bluefin Tuna

effectively.

- This is because Atlantic Bluefin Tuna are highly migratory.

See physical abilities for more information.

- A recent tagging project to track Atlantic Bluefin Tuna behavior

is intended to collect " scientific data that will provide information

necessary to solve critical stock structure issues." It found that some

fish crossed the management line in only 90 days.

http://www.tunaresearch.org/popuptuna.html

-In order to be effective, scientists from the National Academy of

Sciences state the following data would be necessary:

>"Whether they are interbreeding in spawning areas."

>"The number of bluefin that return to spawn in the same area each

year."

>"Bluefin characteristics." (for instance, fertility rates)

>"Knowledge of movement patterns."

>"An analysis of existing data on distributions of bluefin tuna in

relation to the changes in ocean conditions."

All information in this section is from

http://www2.nas.edu/whatsnew/2222.html

 

 

Management

(Population and A or Economics in I=PAT)

 

- The international management organization responsible for the

stewardship of Atlantic tunas is the International

Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT)

- It's "charter mandates that it manage for maximum sustainable yield."

http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html

- ICCAT is comprised of managers (representatives) from its 22

member nations, all of which are on the Atlantic rim, with the

exception of Japan.

- ICCAT gives precedence to the economic and population concerns

described in Economics And Japanese Food Culture and Selected

Population Issues.

This is because the managers have strong industry ties, often as lobbyists,

ex-fishermen, and commerce department officials.

http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html

- This manifests itself in attempts to protect jobs and the economy

in the short run. For example, ICCAT increased catch quotas from

1,160 to 2,660 metric in 1983, in response to international fears of

reduced catch quotas. Simply not raising the catch quota would have

resulted in an adult population increase of 3.4 times what it is now,

and the population would be steadily increasing at present.

http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html

- ICCAT has often refused to allow conservationist nations or

organizations to present their concerns at its meetings. In addition,

a great deal of political pressure has been put on the nations to

formally withdraw the suggestions for reforms. One such example

occurred when Sweden "announced it would seek to list the Western

Atlantic Bluefin on CITES Appendix 1" [CITES is the Convention on

International Trade in Endangered Species. "Apendix 1 includes

species threatened with extinction which are affected by international

trade."] All quotes are from

http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html

- To learn more about Sweden and Atlantic Bluefin Tuna check out

http://www.outdoor.se/sportfishnews/articles/bluefin/index.htm

 

-The responsible parties in the the member nations administer

ICCAT's mandates. In the U.S., "the Magunson Fishery

Conservation Act and The Atlantic Tunas Conservation Act provide

[National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)] with authority to

implement international agreements."

http://kingfish.ssp.nmfs.gov/olo/unit5.html

 

- Legislation in United States prevents our government

from setting catch quotas lower than ICCAT! http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html

- NMFS sets the number of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna licences available

in the U.S. and closes the season when the ICCAT catch quota has been met,

regardless of the time of year.

 

 

the public response to over-fishing:

 

 

 

Public Response

 

 

- The effects of the current level of harvesting on the Western Atlantic

Bluefin Tuna population has prompted two main public responses.

- It is important to remember that people often espouse beliefs

based on their personal situations when faced with highly controversial

issues. (I.E. it is easier for scientists to be 'objective' about over-fishing,

because whatever their findings, their jobs are not at stake.)

 

 

argument that the tuna population is stable:

 

 

- This argument has not been made by any independent scientists, to

date.

- Many, many people, especially international lobbyists and

fishermen, express this opinion.

 

 

argument that the tuna population is declining:

 

 

- The majority of scientists concur on the state of the Atlantic Bluefin

Tuna industry, including the industry's and ICCAT's own paid scientific

consultants. (Safina, 1997: 68)

- By the late 1960's, "research indicated that the bluefin was in trouble.

At that time, so many small fish had been caught that several entire age

groups were virtually missing from the population." (Safina, 1997: 68)

- This represents a trend, unfortunately.

- The Atlantic Bluefin Tuna population off the Eastern Seaboard has

plummeted almost 90% since 1970. http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html

- This was from an estimated quarter million to 22,000 fish.

http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html

- check out http://www.panda.org/news/press/news_91.htm

for more information.

 

 

 

Solutions:

 

 

Ideas And Conservation Methods Used In The Proposed Solutions

 

 

This is a two part list, including ideas and conservation methods

found during research and known from personal experience.

It is as comprehensive as possible.

 

 

Ideas

 

the question of jobs vs. the environment:

 

 

- Since the "Green" movement gained a large following and a voice

in public discourse, there has been a serious debate over whether

concern about jobs or the environment should be of primary importance.

- This project argues that in order to have sustainable fisheries

and sustainable jobs, the two cannot be considered separately.

(If Atlantic Bluefin Tuna become extinct, tuna fishermen will

need another form of employment.)

 

 

the question of 'farmers' vs. 'cowboys:'

 

- At a recent hearing pertaining to lobstering legislation, one

representative made a statement to the effect of: "the time has come to

decide whether we are going to be cowboys or farmers." In other

words, will the lobstermen chose to manage the resource or treat

it in an unfettered capitalistic fashion?

 

 

international and U.S. responsiblity:

 

- It is certainly important to promote conservation in all Atlantic

Bluefin Tuna habitats, including those outside U.S. juristiction.

- This could be done diplomatically, perhaps be groups of

concerned fishermen.

- This page takes the position that the U.S. must primarily lead by

example, because we cannot control what others do.

 

 

the example of Monhegan lobster legislation:

 

 

- Until very recently, Monhegan Island (a small island 10 miles off

the coast of Maine) has had unique lobstering legislation. It features

some ideas which may also be useful when considering over-fishing

in the tuna industry: self-regulation and self-restraint brought about

by a closed area, a closed season, a trap limmit and an informal

residency and apprecnticeship requirement.

- The island had a closed zone (with a two mile radius) and a closed

season (between New Years' Day and the twenty-fifth of June).

- Each lobsterman was allowed 600 traps.

- The number of fishermen remained constant (roughly 12).

- An informal residence and apprenticeship requirement was enforced.

*The stock size and economic well being of the fisherman has

remained constant, for the most part.

- Learn more about the spirit of Monhegan Island

 

 

Conservation Meathods

 

 

~education

 

- The government (with input from scientists and fishermen's

organizations) could implement an education requirement prior

to the issuing of tuna licences.

- This could be a class on personal and community responsiblity

for the health of the Atlantic Bluefin Tuna population.

- Part of this program would include assigning fishermen personal

areas, and promoting feelings of responsibility for areas.

- I realize this is somewhat like expecting our schools to instill morals

in our children. However, there are requirements for getting a driver's

licence in the United States, and one has considerably more power to

do (long term) harm with a tuna than a driver's licence.

 

 

~catch quotas

 

- Catch quotas smaller than those put in place by ICCAT

are necessary. Legislation must be changed in the U.S. first, see

tuna mangement organizations.

-"Rebuilding the bluefin population to the levels of the mid-1970's within

twenty years would require cutting the West Atlantic quota by 80

percent" by some estimates, and at zero catch and many years by others.

(Safina, 1997: 110)

-"The breeding population is 13% of what it was in the mid-1970s." With

this fact in mind, reducing to "catches of 2000 metric tons [in comparison

to current catches of rougly 2,500 metric tons] will only maintain the

current low population size. To have the healthy levels of the mid-1970's

again, catches will need to be reduced to 500 metric tons [or one-fifth

current size].

http//:www.panda.org/news/press/news_91.htm

- Safina writes:

"...For the Western Atlantic, the total weight of all breeding

bluefins would need to be about thirty thousand tons to

produce maximum sustainable yield. This compares with

the current estimate of less than six thousand tons, under

which the depleted population is declining." (Safina, 1997: 90)

 

~ monthly vs. seasonal quotas

 

- Fishermen might have a more stable income (and

therefore might not request higher catch quotas) if monthly

rather than seasonal quotas were implemented.
- This is because NMFS closes the Atlantic Bluefin Tuna season

once the catch quota has been met, regardless of the time of

year. For example the season may be closed after only three months,

leaving fishermen without income from tuna for the rest of the year.

If monthly quotas were introduced, fishermen would be almost

guaranteed some income each month.

 

 

~ age-specific laws

 

- Bluefin Tuna are adults (become sexually mature) at 8 years.

- If fewer fish 8 years and younger were caught, different age groups

would have a greater chance to grow to maturity and spawn.

- ICCAT or the U.S. government could set age guidelines successfully,

because fishermen can guestimate the age of a fish in the water by its

size and weight.

- This could be promoted by governmental subsidy/tax break for

those who caught no -8 year old tuna.

 

 

 

~ east-west management practices

 

- Improve our knowledge of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna "mixing" through

scienfic monitoring see argument that there is not enough information

on tuna population.

- This would allow for more enlightened (sucessful) management.

 

 

~ international cooperation to improve mangaement

 

- Improve management meathods used by ICCAT.

(Remove industry bias) see Management.

- This would allow management schema to be more successful.

 

 

~ number of fishermen

 

- Decrease the number of licenses issued or

- Set a quota per fisherman instead of by area.

- This would decrease the number of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna caught.

and/or

- Use government dollars to:

a) buy tuna fishermens' boats and gear (this has already been done in

other fisheries in the U.S. and abroad).

b) help with or provide new jobs for ex-fishermen. See mariculture.

 

~ harvesting methods

- Increase harpooning and angling.

- Decrease purse seining and longlining.

- For an explanation, see A Mini-History Of Tuna Harvesting.

- This could be done via ICCAT or government regulation, by the

majority decision of tuna fishermen's organizations or on an individual

(boat by boat) basis.

and/or

- Decrease or outlaw use of spotter planes.

 

~ mariculture

 

- Definition from Webster's dictionary: the regulation and cultivation

of salt water plants and animals for human use or consumption.

- Japanese experiments with mariculture have been unsuccessful to date.

- If Atlantic Bluefin Tuna were 'farmed'

a) the wild population could experience less stress

b)some fishing jobs could potentially be changed into farming jobs,

while maintaining the jobs of other folks involved in the industry.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Proposed Solutions

 

 

- Simply reducing catch quotas is not the solution to the complex issue

of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna over-fishing. Instead, many different

conservation management schema and behaviors should be implemented

to achieve (maximum) sustainable yield.

- The proposed solutions differ in meathods used and in

which groups would be in control of conservation management.

- As the name suggests, the idealistic solution would be virtually

impossible to implement.

- Negative effects: both proposed solutions would have negative

impacts on jobs and the economy. (At least until tuna stocks rose

significantly.)

 

the idealistic solution

 

- A perfect solution to the overfishing of Atlantic Bluefin Tuna would

take into consideration the needs and desires of

 

a) fishermen; b) preservationists, conservationists, and scientists;

c) the international community; d) all folks involved in transporting,

purchasing, advertising, processing, cooking and serving tuna

 

now. This is absolutely impossible.

 

- An idealistic solution can, but only in the long run. By stabilizing

the Atlantic Bluefin Tuna industry, all the jobs it provides would

be stabilized.

- Unfortunately, there is no way to achieve this without drastically

reducing tuna mortality, which in turn entails unemployment or a

large decrease in income for many, many people.

 

- The focus of the idealistic solution is to promote personal and group

responsibility for the fishery. This entails helping indviduals see

the relationship between their personal actions the larger scientific

and economic situation. A comprehensive system of multifaceted

management and behavior modification would achieve this goal. Such a

system could be created from the series of conservation methods

suggested. This could be achieved if the methods were made into U.S.

and/or international law, with the stipulation that the most effective

combination of conservation measures was to be used at all times. The

system would be administered by (the most effective combination of

conservation measures would be chosen by) a committie composed of:

autonomous groups of fishermen, scientists, conservationists and

industry, the U.S. government, and ICCAT.

- This is especially important at present because

"the human victims of bad management are the fishers [and others

dependent on the industry]; the [ICCAT and U.S. government]

bureaucrats' paychecks remain unaltered." (Safina, 1997: 45)

 

 

 

The idealistic management solution would include:

 

education:

 

- in order to have a tuna licence, every individual

would have to attend a class on personal

and community responsibility for the health of the

Atlantic Bluefin Tuna industry.

- part of this program would include assigning
fishermen personal areas, and promoting

feelings of responsibility for areas

 

international responsiblity:

 

- promote international conservation

through

a) diplomacy

and

b) leadership by example

 

catch quotas:

 

- change to monthly vs. yearly quotas

- create age specific quotas (tuna must

be 8+ years to be harvested)

-allow a committee of fishermen &

scientists to define catch quotas

with an initial decrease of at least 80%

- fund scientists to study East-West movement

as it relates to Western Atlantic catch quotas

and use their imput in setting the quotas

 

number of fishermen:

 

-decrease the number of fishermen (by

decreased number of permits issued and/or

governmental purchase of gear and the government

assisting with/providing new jobs, see mariculture)

 

 

harvesting techniques:

 

-large increase in use of harboon/angling

-little to no use of purse seine/longline

-outlaw spotter planes

 

mariculture:

 

-governmental grants to scientists to experiment with

mariculture technology

-high use of these technologies when available

 

(For an explanation of the individual parts of the solution, see

Ideas and Conservation Methods Used In The Proposed Solutions.)

 

 

 

the practical (or primarily economic) solution:

 

 

- The practical solution is based on the sentiment that

"we shall never achieve harmony with the land,

any more than we shall achieve justice or

liberty for people. In these higher aspirations

the important thing is not to achieve, but to

strive..." - Aldo Leopold

In other words, the practical solution takes the realistic ability and desire

of the groups involved to "strive" for harmony with the Atlantic

Bluefin Tuna population. Bearing in mind that the needs and desires of

the groups would most likely be considered in order of their influence on

ICCAT and the governments of its member nations.

(i.e. in order d, a, c, b).

- Even so, some unemployment or loss of income would result.

 

- The focus of the realistic solution is on ICCAT and government

control. The current management system would simply change

the, or use different, conservation methods.

 

 

The realistic mangement solution would include:

 

 

catch quotas:

 

-decrease catch quotas (by 15% initially)

-create age-specific quotas (tuna -8 years

can only make up 25% of a fisherman's catch,

with the government giving tuna fishermen

subsidies/tax breaks if they catch no tuna -8 years)

 

management:

 

-promote changes in international management

-fund scientists to study East-West movement

as it relates to Western Atlantic catch quotas

and use their input in setting the quotas

 

number of fishermen:

 

-decrease the number of fishermen (by

decreased number of permits issued and/or

governmental purchase of gear and the government

assisting with/providing new jobs, see mariculture)

 

harvesting techniques:

 

-governmental subsidies for harpooners/anglers

-outlaw spotter planes

 

mariculture:

 

-governmental grants to scientists to experiment

with mariculture technology

-subsidies and/or tax breaks to promote use of these

technologies when available

 

(For an explanation of the individual parts of the solution, see

Ideas and Conservation Methods Used In The Proposed Solutions.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Update:

 

 

1999 Catch Quotas

 

- Catch quotas in the Western Atlantic are set at 2,500 tons.

- Catch quotas in the Eastern Atlantic are set at 32,000 tons.

 

 

works cited:

 

 

Bibliography:

 

 

books:

 

Orbach, Michael K., Hunters, Seamen, Entrepreneurs, University of

California Press, Berkeley, 1977

Safina, Carl, Song For The Blue Ocean, Henry Holt and Company,

New York, 1997.

Whynott, Douglas, Giant Bluefin, Farrar Straus Giroux, New York,

1995.

 

 

webpages:

 

http://www.bumblebee.com/about/portraits.html

http://www.cnie.org/nle/mar-5.html

http://encarta.msn.com/index/concise/0vol09/010d0000.asp

http:// www.gulfofmaine.org

http://www.hp.com/abouthp/features/bluefin/taxonomy.html

http://kingfish.ssp.nmfs.gov/olo/unit5.html

http://www2.nas.edu/whatsnew/2222.html

http://www.nexus.edu.au/schools/plhs/plhstuna.htm

http://www.001.com/fishing/tuna/docs/tuna_controls.shtml

http://www.outdoor.se/sportfishnews/articles/bluefin/index.htm

http//:www.panda.org/news/press/news_91.htm

http://www.seaweb.org/safina2.html

http://www.tunaresearch.org/

http://www.vikingcharters.nf.ca/tuna.htm

http://www.wwf.org/

 

 

 

 

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