Partition Beginnings, The History of India to Independence (1600-1947)
Maps of India pre and post partition. Images Couirtesy of the British Broadcasting Corporation(BBC)©
British East India Company- Independence (1600-1874)
The Beginnings of the India-Pakistan Partition occurred with the start of the British East India Company. The British East India company was a joint-stock company where the company was funded by several investors, each with individual shares in the company, for both profits and acquired debts. The company received its charter to operate from Queen Elizabeth I on December 31 st, 1600 with the intent of obtaining a trade monopoly in the area. This British involvement in India first began through the company with purely commercial interests and the company later became involved in territorial interests.
The company first decided to enter India through a treaty with Emperor Jahangir, that gave the company the exclusive rights to build factories in the Surat region in exchange for European fineries and goods that were rare in India . Afterwards, the company first took its first foothold on Indian governmental policies when it was exempt from paying custom duties in Bengal in 1717 by the Mughal Emperor. This exemption allowed the British East India Company to obtain its desired monopoly, as well as a step into the government that they would further exploit.
Flag of the British East India Company which is said to be the inspiration for the stars and stripes American flag. Image Courtesy Wikipedia©
Expansion, Monopoly, and Demise
With the patronage of Emperor Jahangir, who ruled 70% of India at the time, the company held a great deal of clout in the subcontinent, and soon dominated over the Portuguese, who had established themselves in Bombay and Goa . The British East India Company controlled all of India ’s trade operations. Because India held such a key position in trade, the company grew to be very large, and the company itself had a dominant place in India . The factories erected by the company became the forts for many cities, such as the Bombay Castle .
The company’s absolute military and commercial power was established with the Battle of Plassey.
Britain went to war with France during the Seven Years’ War of 1753-1764, during which the demand for Indian commodities grew in order to support the needs of the war efforts as well as the British economy.
Shah Alam, the ruling emperor of Bengal gave up his administrative rights which lead to Robert Clive, becoming the first British governor of Bengal .
Through legislation that gave the Governor General and his council complete legislative powers, Warren Hastings, the governor of Bengal became India ’s first Governor-General. This marks the complete British takeover of the Indian government. Through Hastings ’ appointment as Governor General, the British were allowed to maintain their trade monopoly.
The company soon began its decline with the Bengal Famine, where one-sixth of the local population starved to death due to poor planning by the British forces. The company later lost its charter that granted trading exclusivity, and it was forced to become a trading enterprise. However, it lost much of its power following Sepoy Mutiny. Britain established India as one of its colonies in 1857, the company’s possessions officially belonged to Britain in first half of the 1860s. The British East India Company was official dissolved on January 1 st, 1874 .
Battle of Plassey
This battle bears a great significance, because it was the battle that first established the company’s absolute commercial and military power. The Battle of Plassey took place in June 1757 and took place between the British East India Company and Siraj-Ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab, or provincial governor, of Bengal . There was friction between the Nawab and the company regarding the Nawab’s capture of Calcutta . The battle took place in a small village between Calcutta and Murshidabad, and lasted only a few hours. Although the Nawab’s forces outnumbered the company’s forces greatly, with 50,000 of the Nawab’s soldiers compared to the 800 British and 2200 soldiers that were a part of the British East India Company. The company’s efforts were not stifled by their lack of manpower for long, they successfully bribed most of the Nawab’s soldiers to put down their weapons and prematurely surrender. Some were even convinced to fight against their own forces. The start of this treachery amongst the Indian people proved to be the start of a very dangerous trend that would later divide the nation.
Sepoy Mutiny
Bloodshed at the battle of Sepoy Mutiny. Image courtesy of the Cable News Network(CNN) ©
A sepoy, directly defined, is an Indian soldier in the British army. This “mutiny” directly refers to a cultural conflict between the Indian and British soldiers and the type of grease used in the British Army’s gun cartridges. This period of events between 1857-1858 is known as the First War of Independence. During this time, there were numerous armed rebellions in northern and central India against British governmental rule. These rebellions marked the demise of the East India Company’s rule in India . This rebellion marks the first major sign of Indian discontent with British rule as a culmination of cultural and ethnic differences.
Indian Independence
Indian Independence came as a result of a series of movements that began in 1857, Sepoy Mutiny, with the main movement lead by the Indian National Congress, followed by a non-agitation movement lead by Mohandas Gandhi.
Mangal Pande-1857
In 1857, Mangal Pande, a soldier in the British army’s native infantry attacked his British Sergeant. The sergeant said that he was on a religious frenzy, and ordered a worker to arrest him. Both Pande and the worker were hanged, and Pande’s entire native regiment was discharged. The members of the native regiment felt this was much too harsh. There was a collective decision made to rebel. On May 10 th, the 11 th and 20 th cavalries broke rank when they assembled and they liberated the 3 rd cavalry unit in the process. Together they marched to New Delhi where they captured the Red Fort. Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last mogul emperor, and the members of the broken cavalry insisted that he become their rebellion leader.
In the city of Jhansi also in 1858, the queen, Rani Lakshmi Bai assembled a force of 14,000 soldiers to rebel against the British army. The battle between the forces lasted two weeks, but resulted in a British victory. The British responded by forcing the rebels back to Delhi in a battle that lasted from July 1 st to August 31 st. There was also a second battle where Rani Lakshmi Bai lost her life.
These battles caused a great deal of change in British rule. The British East India Company was completely abolished, and a greater effort was made to integrate native Indians into the government. Although only aristocrat Indians were recruited to serve in government posts, and Indians were only admitted to subordinate posts in the army, this symbolized the British recognition to maintain civil ties with the Indians. The obligation to treat the Indian people as human beings was also recognized.
National Congress
The current National Congress Party Symbol, Image Courtesy Google Web ©
In 1885, seventy-three delegates met to form the first Indian Congress. Although this group claimed to represent all of India , it seemed impossible considering the backgrounds of the delegates as well as the approach taken by the group. All of the delegates were of the elite class of Indian society and had been educated at foreign institutions, and were now involved in professions such as law and journalism that were not very common at the time. Although the start of a National Congress by this group was a very important symbolic step, they were not able to connect with the more grassroots concerns of the majority of the population at that time. Congress primarily met to discuss civil rights and express its royalty to the British Raj.
By 1900 had achieved the level of being an organization that represented all of India . It had attracted members from diverse economic and social backgrounds. However, the biggest downfall of Congress at this time was that it had failed to attract Muslim members. Hindu leaders had a conflict of interest with Muslim practices of conversion and development of Arabic script, there was concern in the Muslim community that these leaders would not adequately represent there interests in government.
As a solution, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launched a movement for Muslim regeneration. The movement received its foothold in the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College that was founded in 1875. The goal of the college was to educate the Muslim community about the Islam’s compatibility with modern Western thought.
This congressional divide represents one of the first major divisions of the Hindu and Muslim communities of India .
Partition of Bengal and the All-Muslim League
In 1905, the current Governor-General, Sir George Curzon, ordered the partition of Bengal in order to allow more effective administration over the region. The partition created Assam & Eastern Bengal. This partition only served to anger the Bengali people as they were not consulted in this decision. This outrage led to a Congress-led boycott of all British goods, as well as a vicious cycle of oppression and violence.
When King George V visited in 1911, he reversed the partition of Bengal , and moved the capital city from Calcutta to the soon-to-be-built New Delhi .
In 1909, the All-Muslim League was founded by the British in order to promote loyalty to their cause as well as to provide a forum for the advancement of Muslim affairs and political rights. In addition the number of elected positions for Muslims in the government was increased in order to allow for the equal representation of their concerns. The league emphasized its existence as a separate organization from congress, and called themselves a “nation within a nation”. Although this step was an important one for equal representation, it only widened the rift between the Hindu and Muslim populations within the nation as it only emphasized the differences of the two groups rather than advocating a means of a peaceful coexistence.
World War I- Civil Disobedience Movement
During World War I, the Indian People were very supportive of the British efforts. To demonstrate their support they sent troops to serve for the British in addition to the food, ammunition, and money they sent to support their regime. In gratitude, the British responded by transferring a number of non-controversial positions such as agriculture and public works to Indian control.
The positive image the British received by transferring these positions was transferred with the Rowlatt Act that was passed in 1919. This act allowed for the silencing of press and for the detention of political activists without a trial. This led to the Massacre at Amritsar which was deemed a culmination of events where on April 19th, 1919 there was a mass killing of innocent people.
Mohandas Gandhi reorganized the Congress and provided them with a new constitution which gave them the new focus of swaraj, or independence. Gandhi advocated independence through nonviolent action. He encouraged the boycott of British: educational institutions, courts, taxes, goods, and government employment.
Last Attempt
In May 1928, an all-party conference was held in Bombay in order to draft a constitution for India . When the national Congress met again in Calcutta it was demanded that the British grant India dominion status by December of the following year. The consequences of refusal were said to be a nationwide revolt. Although the nation was told that it would be granted dominion status, it was decided in December of 1929 under the presidency of Jawarharlal Nehru that the nation would seek complete independence from Britain .
The civil disobedience movement had ensued, and only saw the hope of stopping with the Gandhi’s failed attempts at the second Round Table Conference. The Government of India Act of 1935 established some peace between the two warring parties, and served as a last attempt of a functioning British India . However, one problem had been solved, but there was yet a bigger one. The rift between the Muslim League and Congress had widened so deeply that both parties doubted the other’s claimed causes. This symbolized the irreversible division between the Hindu and Muslim groups of India .
Attempts to establish the autonomic government in India failed when the Muslim League performed poorly in elections. Mohammed Ali Jinnah, the president of the Muslim League persuaded his representatives to adopt a resolution that demanded the division of India into two separate states.
The end of World War II established Britain as a secondary world power, and with this the public’s opinion of India evolved. When the Labour Party came into power in Britain , it was decided that they would allow India to be independent.